THE MOST IMPORTANT PARASITIC AND SAPROPHYTIC FUNGI IN AUSTRIAN PINE AND SCOTS PINE PLANTATIONS IN SERBIA

In Austrian pine plantations in Serbia, the greatest damage is caused by the fungi Mycosphaerella pini, Sphaeropsis sapinea, Cenangium ferruginosum, Germmeniella abietina (in the mountain regions) and occasionally Armillaria spp., Lophodermium spp. (seditiosum, conigenum, pinastri) and Cyclaneusma niveum. In Scots pine plantations, the greatest damage is caused by the fungi Heterobasid­ ion annosum (especially in plantations on sandy soils), Armillaria spp, Lophoder­ mium seditiosum, L. pinastri, Cyclaneusma minus and Sphaeropsis sapinea. Damage caused by rust fungi (Coleosporium sennecionis, Melampsora pinitorqua and Cronartium flaccidum) occurs less frequently. In mountainous regions in Scots pine plantations, great damage is caused by Phacidium infestans, Lophodermella sulci­ gena and Gremmeniella abietina.


INTRODUCTION
Intensive afforestation of bare lands and deforested areas in the area of the former Yugoslavia was undertaken in the second half of the XX century.The most frequent species in afforestation were Pinus species, and in Serbia especially Austrian pine and Scots pine plantations were established on large areas.The establishment of monocultures over large areas was followed by numerous problems already from the beginning.In pine plantations, among harmful biotic factors, especially important were pests (e.g.outbreaks of bark beetles, pine rollers, pine sawflies, etc.) and diseases caused by parasitic fungi (e.g.needle diseases, branch and shoot dying, root rot, etc.).During detailed health investigation of Scots pine and Austrian pine plantations, some dangerous pathogenic fungi were identified which had not been previously recorded in the area of Serbia.Some of them, such as Gremmeniella abietina, Phacidium infestans and Lophodermella sulcigena, were on the list of quarantine diseases.Some of these parasitic fungi had probably been present previously in our forests, but the symptoms of their diseases were often confused with the symptoms of some common diseases.Thus, for example, the symptoms of the disease caused by the fungus G. abietina can easily be confused with the symptoms of the disease caused by the fungus Cenangium ferruginosum, and the symptoms of Lophodermella sul cigena can be confused with the symptoms of the disease caused by the fungi in the Lo phodermium genus.
The aim of this study was to research distribution, life cycle and the possibilities of control of the most important parasitic fungi in Austrian pine and Scots pine plantations.
Most of the fungi were isolated from the infected needles, shoots and bark of both Austrian pine and Scots pine on the nutritive media [malt-extract agar (MeA) and potato-dextrose agar (PDA) (B o o t h , 1971).Fungi were isolated by using one of these two methods.In the first method, the needles and shoots were immersed for one minute into 40% alcohol, and then for ten minutes in 0.15% solution of Hgcl 2 .After that, the needles and shoots were washed twice in sterilized distilled water and cut to fragments of 2-5 mm, which were placed on the media (malt extract agar, potato-dextrose agar).The second method was to sterilize the needle and shoot surface by immersion in a solution of sodiumhypochlorite with 1.5% active chlorine for 5 minutes and then they were cut into fragments and placed on the nutritive media as above.Petri dishes with the media and host fragments were incubated at 15°C to obtain pure cultures.Usually, colonies of fungi started to develop after 4-5 days after the inoculation of the medium.After the appearance of the fungal colony on the media, the isolates were placed in thermostats and their growth was further monitored at the temperatures of 15 and 20°C.
All the isolates were examined from time to time and the rate of colony development was observed, as well as the fructifications in the culture, etc.The fungi were identified based on the sporulation in the culture, the appearance of hyphae, rate of growth, etc.In cases when there was no sporulation in the culture, sterile Austrian pine and Scots pine needles were placed on the colony.The aim was to produce fructifications on the needles and in this way to identify the fungi.During the experiment, several pure cultures of fungi were obtained and they were identified in the above way.The identification was performed by the following keys: B u t i n (1989), D a r k e r (1932,1967), D e n n i s (1978), e l l i s , e l l i s (1985), e v a n s (1984), G r e m m e n (1959), G r o v e (1935,1937), H a n l i n (1992,1998)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the research are given in Table 1.

Scots pine +
Legend: + -Fungi occur mostly as saprophytes or seldom as facultative parasites.They are not significant as agents of disease in Austrian pine and Sots pine plantations.++ -Fungi occur on shoots, bark or two-year old (rarely also on one-year old) needles on trees.except in exceptional conditions, they are not a practical problem in Austrian & Scots pine plantations.+++ -Very significant fungi.They represent a practical problem in the establishment and maintenance of Austrian pine and Scots pine plantations.During the intensive several-years infections, they can cause dying back of trees.
From Table 1 it can be seen that 41 species of fungi were observed and identified on Austrian pine.From Table 1 it can be concluded that, according to their significance, all the observed fungi can be classified into three groups.
No doubt, the fungus Mycosphaerella pini (more widely known by its conidial stage Dothistroma septospora /=D.pini/) is one of the most widespread and dangerous pathogenic fungi in pine nurseries and plantations in the world.M. pini has been observed on more than fifty Pinus species, and on Larix deciduas (B a s s e t t , 1969), Pseudotsuga menziesii (D u b i n , Wa l p e r, 1967), Picea abies (L a n g , 1987), P. omorika (K a r a d ž i ć , 1994) and P. sitchensis (P e t e r s o n , G r a h a m , 1974).The fungus causing needle blight ("red band needle blight)".Pines affected by Mycosphaerella blight lose needles prematurely, thereby reducing growth.repeated attacks sometimes kill trees.Mycosphaerella pini is widespread in Serbia.It occurs especially frequently in Austrian pine plantations on Suvobor, the Deliblato Sands, the Subotica-Horogoš Sands and Pešter.In Serbia, great economic loss is caused by M. pini only in Pinus nigra plantations.Plantings between 5 and 25 years of age are especially endangered.Damage has also been detected on P. mugo, but only on park trees.This species has never been attacked by M. pini in natural habitats.The main reason for the above is that the ecological factors prevailing in natural habitats of P. mugo are very unfavourable for the development of the fungus.M. pini has never been recorded in Serbia at the elevation higher than 900 m.In Serbia P. sylvestris is very resistant, however in 1986 this species was also mildly infected at Deliblato sands (K a r a d ž i ć , 1986, L a n g , K a r a d ž i ć , 1987).
The results of the long-term research can be summarised as follows: Mycosphaerella pini has a one-year life cycle.conidiomata mature by the end of March.Twelve months are required to pass between the moment of infection and the new dispersal of conidia capable of infection.exceptionally, conidiomata may be formed within the year in which infection occurred, but the conidia are capable for infection only in the following spring.The conidia are dispersed from the beginning of April till the end of october, and exceptionally they can be discharged earlier.Ascospores are dispersed from the second half of June till the end of September.The infection period lasts from the middle of April till the end of August.The critical period for infection is from the beginning of May till the end of July.Most infection occurs during May and June, and the maximum is in the first half of June.Protection is necessary in the critical period for infection, i.e. from the beginning of May till end of July.The length of incubation period in natural conditions varies depending of the climatic factors, but it is normally from 4 to 6 months.The first symptoms of the disease on the needles infected during the current year appear by the end of September and during october, but they are quite distinguishable during November and December (Figure 1).
The infection occurs most often on the previous year needles, and more rarely on current year needles.The first symptoms of the disease are the discolouration of needle tips.The upper half of the needle becomes light green, then turns yellow and finally becomes light brown, while the base of the needle stays green.Most commonly, only the portion of the needle above the place of infection changes colour.Though this is the most common form of symptom, symptoms may also occur on other parts of the needle.Usually, at places where the fungus penetrates in the first stage, there are dark green bands throughout the needle, but more often in its upper part.Soon after these bands appear, pale reddish and then reddish-brown and brick-red spots develop (Figure 1-d).reddish spots and bands are visible at both sides of the needle.The following February the whole needle becomes necrotic and covered with numerous individual or scattered reddish bands and spots.At this time erumpent fruiting bodies of this fungus develop, which destroy the epidermis and erupt to the surface.When conditions are favourable, usually by the end of February, physiologically mature conidia can be observed, though their mass release starts about the end of March.In Serbia, both the teleomorph (M.pini) and anamorph (D. sep tospora) states of the fungus have been detected.conidiomata are produced more often than ascostromata.It seems that the anamorph is the parasitic stage of the fungus, whereas the teleomorph is the saprophytic stage.Ascostromata are usually formed only when the   1987/b, 1989/a, 1987/b, 1990, 2004).
considering the great losses caused by Mycosphaerella pini in P. nigra plantations, experiments with various protective fungicides were begun.Previous preliminary investigations showed that the greatest percentage of infection occurred during May and June, so to be economical, two treatments were used.The first treatment was aimed to protect oneyear old needles (the most susceptible needles), and the second was to protect the newlyformed current-year needles.Among all the fungicides applied in the protection, the best results were obtained using copper fungicides (Figure 2).Protection should be applied at the beginning of May and June, for economic reasons, every third year in 5-20 year old plantations (K a r a d ž i ć , 1987/a, 1996/a).
Sphaeropsis sapinea is a cosmopolitan fungus, identified from more than 50 countries of the world, on all continents, but it is primarily the species of warm lands.It is also a polyphagous fungus recorded from 11 coniferous genera.The most endangered and the most frequent host plants are Pinus species -it occurs on 48 pine species, among which the most susceptible are Pinus radiata, P. nigra, P. sylvestris, P. ponderosa, P. resinosa, P. mugo, P. pinaster and P. elliotti.The greatest damage is caused on the introduced Pinus species and on those cultivated in artificial plantations, shelterbelts and in urban environments.In the former Yugoslavia, S. sapinea was widely distributed both in the continental and in the Mediterranean parts.It was identified on ten pine species and six hosts from other coniferous genera.Based on the study in our country, the new hosts of this fungus were detected -Pinus jeffrey, P. peuce and P. heldreichii.The most endangered species is Austrian pine, both in urban environments, and in plantations (M i l i j a š e v i ć , 1994, 2000/a, 2002, M i l i j a š e v i ć , K a r a d ž i ć , 1997).
The symptoms of the disease are bud wilt, curling, stunting and necrosis of current year shoots and needles, dieback of top shoots, parts of crown or tree tops, branch and stem bark canker, root collar rot on the young plants in nurseries and their dying.This fungus also prevents seed germination of Pinus species and causes blue sap stain of the freshly cut wood, although sap stain was also observed on standing trees.More rarely it causes root rot and crown wilt of Pinus species.The main symptoms of infection, both of young plants and older trees, are the dieback of current year shoots (Figure 3-a,b,c,d).
S. sapinea can penetrate through buds, bark of young shoots and needles.The critical time of infection is the period from mid April to mid May (K a r a d ž i ć , S t o j a d i n o v i ć , 1988, M i l i j a š e v i ć , 2000/a).Then the fungus mainly penetrates through the bark of young shoots, which results in their dying.Infection through the needles occurs mainly at the time of their sudden growth or during summer months.The first visible symptoms of infection of the young shoots are brown necroses, resin bleeding and several short pairs of needles.S. sapinea can infect male and female flowers, current year and second-year cones.The pycnidia with mature conidia can form on the shoots, needles, first-year and second-year cones during the year of infection.The first mature fructifications are mostly formed in the bark of young shoots, in the zone of infection, and they were recorded in late June at the earliest.They were recorded on the cones at the beginning of the third decade of July.Pycnidia are formed in the bark, on the needles and on the second-year and older seed-cones, on male and female flowers, as well as on the cones in the first year of development.(Figure 3-e, f, g, h, i).The size of S. sapinea conidia on different Pinus species is very variable throughout the world and ranges widely from 16.8-55.0×7.0-21.0μm.our study shows that the size of pycnospores in our country is also variable and it ranges 14.8-51.4×9.7-20.2μm (M i l i j a š e v i ć , 2002).
The optimal temperature for spore germination and germ tube growth is 27°C, and the optimal temperature for mycelial growth on the media PDA and MeA is 28°C.The formation of fruiting bodies in the culture is affected by light and the presence of sterilised needles on the mycelium.
The correct and timely control measures can contribute to reducing this serious disease, by the combined application of silvicultural and chemical measures.chemical control is recommended in the nurseries, severely infected plantations and in urban environments.The fungicides which showed the greatest efficiency are the preparations based on copper and Benomil (K a r a d ž i ć et al., 1995, M a r i n k o v i ć , K a r a d ž i ć , 1987, M i l i j a š e v i ć , 2000/b).
Gremmeniella abietina is one of the most dangerous pathogenic fungi inhabiting conifer plantations and especially endangered species are the pines.Among the pines, the most susceptible species are Austrian pine and Scots pine, and endangered plantations are aged between 8 and 25 years.Fungus G. abietina was identified for the first time in the former Yugoslavia in 1979 in the area of NP "Durmitor", in the vicinity of Žabljak, in a mixed plantation of Austrian pine and Scots pine, aged between 25 and 30 years (M a r i n k o v i ć , K a r a d ž i ć , 1983).About ten years later (1988), this fungus was identified in Serbia in Scots pine and spruce plantations on Kopaonik (K a r a d ž i ć , 1989/c).By the end of 1992, it was identified on Scots pine on the mountains Vlasina and Goč (trees age between 18 and 20 years).During 1998, G. abietina was identified in the Scots pine plantation in the area of Ivica (site "Popov Do", plantation age 10 years).This fungus was identified again during 2002 in the area of Ivica in the Scots pine plantations established in 1992-93 (sites "Mala Barna" and "Ivički Vukodoli").During 2006, Gremmeniella abietina was identified in Scots pine plantation in the area of NP "Kopaonik", (site "Samokovska reka", compartment 83).The plantation area is 2.47 hectares.The trees age is 50 years, height 15-20 m, diameter 15-30 cm (Figure 4).This Scots pine plantation was not tended, so there were numerous uprootings and broken trees.A severe infection by G. abietina was diagnosed on all trees, and in great many cases also the young shoots of the current vegetation were killed.
In its development, G. abietina forms both stages.Its pycnidial stage (Brunchorstia pinea (Karst.)Höhn.) is far more significant for the infection process, and mainly all infections are by conidia (Figure 2-b, c, d).Infection of trees is possible throughout all the year, but the critical period of infection is May-June.conidia (Figure 5-d) are transmitted by raindrops, and the infection is spread through the buds and bark of young shoots.Incubation period lasts for 9 months.The symptoms of infection are visible at the base of buds, on the needles (orange discolouration at the base of the needles) and on the bark of young shoots.Soon after the symptoms, the fruiting bodies (i.e.pycnidia) appear on the necrotic tissues of the host.Apothecia formed on the bark pine two years after tree dying (Fig. 5-e).In the severely infested plantations, all dead trees should be felled and removed, and remaining trees should be treated with copper fungicides.Previous preliminary investigations (K a r a d ž i ć et al., 2002, K a r a d ž i ć , 2006) showed that the copper fungicides (for example copper oxychloride) have given the best results and protection.The protection is satisfactory if the treatment is carried out twice a year, during the critical period of infection.As this is a quarantine disease, care must be taken to prevent the spread of the disease to the new uninfected region.This measure is imposed by the legal regulations on quarantine diseases.
Cenangium ferruginosum is one of the most widespread fungi in the world.C. feruginosum causes branch dying, and less frequently also the dying of trees of many Pi nus species.There are different opinions on the parasitism of this species.Some authors claim that it is a parasite of weakness and that it attacks physiologically weakened trees.However, there are opinions that this is a dangerous parasite and that in some years, especially after intense drought, it can cause mass dying.Intensive tree dying in Scots pine and Austrian pine plantations in Serbia (on Zlatibor, Maljen, Šargan, Kopaonik, etc.) was observed during 1987.The inspection of dead trees proved the presence of C. ferruginosum stromata (apothecia), and also the presence of bark beetles and other secondary insects.
In order to research the cause of dying, health inspection of all trees was carried out on 5 permanent sample plots, and also a detailed soil investigation was performed.The results of the research show that in the chain of tree dying, there are several factors of abiotic and biotic nature.By all means, one of the factors was a drought during summer months 1985 and 1986, which led to physiologically weakened trees and their predisposition to further attacks of booth parasitic fungus C. ferruginosum and secondary insects.Intensity of tree dying was much more expressed on shallow skeletal soils.The fact that dead trees had not been removed in time, as well as a lot of material lying on the ground (dry branches, broken and uprooted trees, etc.) lead to further spreading of epiphytotic C. ferruginosum, as well as to the outbreak of bark beetles (K a r a d ž i ć et al ., 1990).
Cenangium ferruginosum has a one-year life cycle and infection of trees is possible throughout the year.Apothecia formed on the pine bark and found all the year round on dead twigs and small branches, especially those cut off trees and lying on the ground.In heavy infected Austrian pine and Scots pine plantations on Zlatibor, experiments of direct protection were set up so as to control further spreading of the infection.From a number of trees (where their terminal shoot was not diseased) all the dry branches were removed and then the trees were treated with copper lime 25 or Benlate.Further dying of these trees was not observed.From a number of trees, all the dry branches were removed, but they were not treated with fungicides and later on (after 2 years) their dying was observed only at places (less than 10%).As for the control trees (which were not protected), the intensity of dying was progressively continued and after 2 years most trees were colonized by parasites of weakness and xylophagous insects.In order to control further outbreaks of break beetle, K a r a d ž i ć et al. (1990) recommended that dead trees and trees dying down be felled, piled and treated with Lignosane or Xyloline.Setting up trap trees and their subsequent peeling and treating with Xyloline will also check further outbreaks of bark beetles.
Armillaria spp.(Armillaria mellea sensu lato) are some of the most widespread of all root disease fungi and have been recorded on over 650 hosts.K e č a et al. (2004,2006) identified five Armillaria species in Serbia and Montenegro (A. gallica, A. cepistipes, A. mellea, A. ostoyae and A. tabescens).
Armillaria causes root, collar and butt rot in a wide range of broadleaved and coniferous trees and shrubs, and sometimes also attacks herbaceous hosts.It may kill trees, or rot timber in their butt lengths, but it causes far less overall damage than Heterobasidion annosum.
Armillaria may be recognized by its fruit body (gilled toadstool), by its sheets of white mycelium, and by its black bootlace-like rhizomorphs.Fruit bodies may be found in late summer and autumn.The mycelium may be found under and within the bark of infested trees, appearing as thick, white or cream-coloured washleather-like sheets.The rhizomorphs (which provide a means of spreading through the soil) are root like, reddishbrown (when young) and black (when older), and may be found in the soil, attached to the root collar and to root surfaces.In forests, it causes much more often losses in conifer crops planted on ex-hardwood sites than on hardwood crops themselves.Most conifers species may be affected and killed when young.Armillaria frequently kill young conifers up to the first thinning.In Serbia, in some Austrian pine and Sots pine plantations the losses could be quite heavy, and if site conditions were unfavourable, groups of trees might be killed.The most effective means of controlling the disease is to remove all sources of infection from the site.Infested stumps (oaks, beech etc.) must be removed before replanting with susceptible coniferous crops.Fungus may be eradicated by soil injection with carbon disulphide or methyl bromide.However, G r e i g et al. (1991) consider that the use of chemicals is too dangerous or to unreliable to recommend at present.P h i l l i p s and B u r d e k i n (1985) suggested treatments of root or the root zone with various fungicides, including iron sulphate, iodine, copper and a refined creosote preparation.
In Austrian pine plantations, the second group according to their significance consists of the fungi: Lophodermium seditiosum, L. pinastri, Cyclaneusma (=Naemacyclus) niveus, Sclerophoma pithyophila, Cenangium acuum and sometimes (some sites) Cronar tium flaccidum.S. pithyophila also occurs on the needles of current vegetation shoots, but only if they are previously damaged or killed by frost, drought, etc., which clearly points to the fact that it is a facultative parasite.
All the remaining fungi mentioned in Table 1 belong to the third group.Fungi occur mostly as saprophytes or seldom as facultative parasites.They are not significant as agents of disease in Austrian pine plantations.They invade completely necrotized needles, dead branches or bark of dead trees or cause wood decay.They are significant agents in further decomposition and humification of wood.
From Table 1 it can be seen that 45 species of fungi were observed and identified on Scots pine.In Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations, the greatest damage is caused by the fungi Heterobasidion annosum (especially in plantations on sandy soils), Armillaria spp, Lophodermium seditiosum L. pinastri, Cyclaneusma minus and Sphaeropsis sapinea.
Heterobasidion annosum attacks a very large number of woody hosts.The fungus is, in economic terms, the most important causal agent of disease and of yield loss in coniferous trees in the northern temperate regions.According to K e č a (2008), three Heter obasidion species are present in forest ecosystems in Serbia (H.annsum, H. parviporum and H. abietinum).Pines are very rarely subject to butt rot ("Annosus root rot"), but in dry areas on sandy soils many trees, especially Scots pine, may be killed.In Serbia, serious damage was observed in Scots pine plantations on the Deliblato Sands.on Scots pine H. annosus produces conks, which are often attached to the bark at the root collar area of the trees or sumps.Spores are responsible for most long distance spreading of the disease from one stand to another.The spores germinate readily on the surface of fresh stumps, producing mycelium that grows through the stump roots to the roots of adjacent living trees.Tree-to-tree transmission is through root contacts.The most important single factor in the infection of Scots pine stands is thinning.While fungus spores occasionally infect roots, most infection originates on the surface of freshly cut stumps.Some infected Scots pine trees show signs of decline for one or more years before dying, with shortened needles and internodes, yellowish colour, and often a heavy crop of cones.other trees die quickly without any previous indication of disease.Some preventive measures are applied in Scots pine plantations on high hazard sites.H. annosum initially enters crops mainly by means of airborne spores that colonise the surface of freshly cut stumps, and much of this colonisation can be prevented by thoroughly painting the fresh stump surfaces with creosote immediately after felling, a mixture of this with tar, with titanium white, zinc oxide, sodium nitrite, ammonium sulphamate, urea or borax.Borax is effective, safe to use, easy to apply, inexpensive, and it is not detrimental to the environment.Granular borax will flow freely, even in rainy weather.In natural conditions, the competing fungi may prevent the entry of H. annosum through the surface of fresh stumps.According to r i s h b e t h (1963), in the case of pines it is possible to ensure the presence of a suitable competing fungus by inoculating fresh stumps with spores of Peniophora gigantea.This fungus can be grown in culture and the spores thereby produced can be made up in a sealed plastic sachet.These sachets are commercially available in Britain, Hungary and Finland."rotstop" is produced in Finland.rotstop is a wettable powder containing spores of Phlebiop sis gigantea.When rotstop suspension is applied to the stump surface, the Ph.giganteus begins growing into the stumps and spreads into its roots, thereby decreasing the spread of root and butt rot via root contact.This makes rotstop an even more effective method of controlling than the chemical alternatives.
Phacidium infestans was recorded (in mountainous regions) both on Scots pine and Austrian pine.In plantations, this fungus appears only on those parts of the stems which are covered with snow in winter.Apothecium of the fungus matures in the second half of September and the beginning of october.The critical period for infection is from the middle of September till to the end of october.Protection (with copper fungicides) is necessary only in nurseries and young plantations in the critical period for infection (M a r i n k o v i ć , K a r a d ž i ć , 1983).
Lophodermella sulcigena was identified for the first time on the needles of Scots pine in Serbia in the region of Vlasina during 1992 (K a r a d ž i ć , 1996).Based on the bioecological study of this fungus during 1992-1995 it was concluded as follows: L. sulcige na infect young (not yet completely developed) needles from the current vegetation.The place of infection is the base of a needle.Infection period lasts from the end May till the end of July, but the critical period for infections is June.Period of incubation on Scots pine lasts for about 30-45 days.The characteristic symptoms of disease is that the part of the needle above the place of infection dies gradually and changes colour, becoming grayish or light brown, while the part of the needle below the place infection remains green.This progressive dying of tissue and needle discolouration lasts till the beginning of November, while one or both needles in the bunch can be infected.Ascospores are disseminated by wind, but especially in very wet weather.Generally, the highest percentage of infections occurs in the years of very high rainfall in May and June.A higher quantity of rainfall in May is necessary to accelerate the fructification of ascocarps, and in June to realize the infection.Ascospores germinate at the temperature range between -2° and +25°C, and the optimum is between 16 and 18°C.In case of intensive infection in Scots pine plantations, as the direct measure of protecting, fungicides must be applied from the middle of May till to end June.As this fungus has so far been identified only from Vlasina, strict care must be taken not to introduce it into new regions.Based on the research of this fungus, it was concluded that it occurs predominantly in upland regions and that ecological conditions at the lowland altitudes are not favourable.
Lophodermium seditiosum was observed at all the localities.Apothecia occur on primary needles of natural regeneration, or on two-year old needles of grown trees.Together with other fungi, it can cause needle shedding.Infection occur from the middle of August till the end of September.
All the other above-mentioned fungi (in Table 1) are not very significant for Scots pine and most of them develop as saprophytes.Some of them, as for example Phellinus pini, form carpophores on standing trees.Some fungi, as e.g.Coleosporium spp.(needle rust) and Dothistroma pini, occur quite rarely on Scots pine.

CONCLUSION
In Austrian pine plantations in Serbia, 41 species of fungi were identified and according to their significance, the fungi can be classed in three groups.The first group (+++) includes Mycosphaerella pini, Sphaeropsis sapinea, Gremmeniella abietina, Cenangium ferruginosum and Armillaria spp.(=A.mellea sensu lato); the second group are Lophoder mium seditiosum, Cenangium accum, Crtonartium flacidum, Cyclaneusma niveun, Scle rophoma pithyophila, Phomopsis sp., and Thyronectria balsamea.All the remaining fungi mentioned in Table 1 belong to the third group.Fungi in the third group occur mostly as saprophytes or seldom as facultative parasites and they are not significant as agents of disease in Austrian pine plantations (they invade completely necrotized needles, dead branches or bark of dead trees or cause wood decaying).They are significant agents in further decomposition and humification of wood.
In Scots pine plantations, 45 species of fungi were observed and identified.on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), the greatest damage is caused by the fungi Heterobasidion annosum (especially in plantations on sandy soils), Armillaria spp, Lophodermium sedi tiosum, L. pinastri, Therrya pini, Cyclaneusma minus and Sphaeropsis sapinea.Damage caused by rust fungi (Coleosporium sennecionis, Melampsora pinitorqua and Cronartium flaccidum) occur less frequently.In Scots pine plantations (in mountain regions), great damage is caused by Phacidium infestans, Lophodermella sulcigena and Gremmeniella abietina.All the remaining fungi belong to the third group, they do not cause much damage, as they occur rarely (e.g.Coleopsporium spp., Mycosphaerella pini, Thyronectria bal samea), or they occur purely as saprophytes.
Twenty four species of fungi were observed and identified on both Austrian pine and Scots pine.
, K i r k et al. (2001), L a n i e r a et al. (1978), M i n t e r et al. (1978), M i n t e r (1981) and S u t t o n (1980).