Occupational Sex Segregation and Working Time : Regional Evidence from Germany

This paper is the private opinion of the author. Its main parts were written in 2012 with the financial support of the VolkswagenStiftung, Hanover (Germany). It accompanies the paper of Stephan Humpert (2013). The author would like to thank the editor and two anonymous referees for their kind comments and suggestions. However, all remaining errors remain to the author. Occupational Sex Segregation and Working Time: Regional Evidence from Germany

In this descriptive paper, I analyze the trends in occupational sex segregation between men and women in Germany.In general, segregation is measured as the ratio of men and women in given occupations.Following the earlier work for Germany by Thomas Hinz and Thomas Schübel (2001), Susanne Falk (2002), and Miriam Beblo, Anja Heinze, and Elke Wolf (2008), I use the regional file of the Institute for Employment Research (IAB) Employment Sample (IABS-R04) to replicate the results for the time span of 1992 to 2004.In this paper, the trends in segregation are presented separately for full-and part-time employment.Because of the specific situation after the unification in 1990, segregation is analyzed for the former East and West Germany.
I present three key results.First, segregation declines over time.Second, segregation is still higher for eastern Germany.There is no observable trend in convergence between eastern Germany and western Germany.Finally, these results hold for both full-time and part-time employment, while segregation is always lower for those working part-time.
The subsequent paper is structured as follows.In the next section, I present a review of the literature findings.In Section 2, I compare two measures of occupational sex segregation.Section 3 provides a data description of the regional file of the IAB Employment Sample (IABS-R04).In Section 4, the descriptive trends are presented.The paper concludes with a summary and discussion of the findings in Section 5.
PANOECONOMICUS, 2014, 3, pp.317-329 ing of western Germans, Stephan Humpert (2013) uses the IAB data used in this paper for the longer time span of 1974 to 2004 to show that younger and middle-aged males have better chances of changing their occupations than female and older persons.Barbara Hahnel and Regina T. Riphahn (2012) use different waves of the German Mikrozensus to show that eastern German mothers with young children have a 20 percent higher probability of finding work than mothers in the western part of Germany.Between 1996 and 2004, low-and medium-skilled mothers in eastern Germany lowered their labor supply, while highly skilled mothers did not.Alice Guyot, Stefan Berwing, and Maria Lauxen-Ulbrich (2009) give an example of malefemale employment relations in one of the western German federal states.Here they use federal employment data (BA Beschäftigungspanel) for the case of Baden-Württemberg1 .Stefan Bauernschuster and Helmut Rainer (2012) use different waves of a German social survey (The German General Social Survey -ALLBUS) to show that the gender roles concerning family and work differ statistically significantly between East and West Germany.Reconciliation of family and work life is still preferred in the eastern part of Germany.
See Tables 1 and 2 for the employment and unemployment rates of East and West German men and women since 1991.Source: German Federal Employment Agency 3 .
However, using Eurostat data, Karl Brenke (2011) contends that not only family-related aspects count for part-time employment.While around 51 percent of employed women in Germany work part-time because of the need to care for children https://www.destatis.de/EN/FactsFigures/NationalEconomyEnvironment/LabourMarket/Employment/Employment.html 3 http://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de/Navigation/Statistik/Statistik-nach-Themen/Arbeitsmarkt-im-Ueberblick/zu-den-Daten/zu-den-Daten-Nav.htmlPANOECONOMICUS, 2014, 3, pp.317-329 and relatives, 19 percent do so because of the lack of any full-time job offers.Most males (38 percent) prefer to change towards full-time employment as well.Compared with the average of the EU-27, fewer women but more men would like to change to full-time employment in Germany.

Measuring Occupational Sex Segregation
This paper deals with horizontal segregation, the ratio of men and women in specific occupations.Vertical segregation, however, deals with individual careers, such as the glass ceiling effect of non-promotion.
In the literature concerning segregation, there is a broader discussion of proper measurement.Surveys like those by Watts (1998) or Michael R. Ransom (2000) show the development and composition of relevant indicators.A long-time gold standard in measuring segregation is the Dissimilarity Index D, defined by Otis D. Duncan and Beverly Duncan (1955).The index is generally interpreted as measuring the proportion of the female workforce that would be required to shift between occupations in order to equalize female and male observations across different occupations.It can be visually interpreted as the maximum distance between the equality line and the segregation curve.See Equation ( 1) for D: While F i and M i are the number of female and male workers for any given job i = 1,...,n, F and M are the total number of females and males in the entire workforce.The index D is scaled from zero to one, where zero means an equal and one an unequal distribution.As a similar type of measure, Robert M. Hutchens (2001Hutchens ( , 2004) ) composed the so-called Hutchens Square Root Segregation Index H. Again, the H Index is scaled from zero to one, where zero means no segregation and one total segregation.See Equation (2) for H: In contrast to this more common type of segregation measurement, the H Index satisfies a set of seven properties for good measurement of segregation instead of four4 .

Data
The IAB Employment Sample (IABS-R04) is a rich data set provided by the German Federal Employment Agency.It is a 2 percent random sample based on administrative data on German social security.The full data include the working careers of PANOECONOMICUS, 2014, 3, pp.317-329 more than 1.36 million individuals with around 25 million observations for the years from 1974 to 2004.These are working people covered by the social security legislation and the unemployed who receive public unemployment transfers.A much more detailed description of the data set is given by Nils Drews (2008).
Following the German reunification in 1990, the eastern part, the former German Democratic Republic, has been included in the data since 1992.Therefore, the time span is limited to the years from 1992 to 2004.The data provide information for about 130 occupations, aggregated from the German system of job classifications compiled in 1988 (in German: Klassifikation der Berufe 1988).However, I use only 129 of them, because of non-identifiable job information in the last category.This limitation arises because category no.130 includes people who work in a non-agricultural family business or in any other business that is not part of the other 129 categories.See Table 4 in the Appendix for the list of jobs.To compare the results of segregation with other German studies, e.g.Hinz and Schübel (2001), or Beblo, Heinze, and Wolf (2008), only employed individuals who work full-time or part-time on the cut-off date of June 30 th are observed.It should be noted, however, that parttime employment is not measured by working contracts, but by working hours.The limit is set to 18 working hours a week.It is obvious that full-time work is dominated by males and part-time work by females.Anker (1997) presents a compendium of stereotypes of male-and female-dominated jobs.Anne Busch (2013) discusses male-, female-and neutral-attributed tasks in Germany.
See Table 3 for descriptive statistics of the female labor supply over time.Source: Own calculation.
Since the German unification, the shares of female part-and full-time work have slightly changed towards equality.In 1992, women accounted for over 90 percent of part-time employment.Then eastern German (91%) and western German women (92%) had similar shares.In full-time work, the shares differed.While 43 percent was carried out by women in the eastern part of Germany, only 34 percent was conducted by women in the western part.Since 2004, the distributions for fulltime working women have remained rather constant.Over 42 percent of full-time work in eastern Germany is carried out by women, while in western Germany the figure is 35 percent.This shows that full-time work is still dominated by men.How-PANOECONOMICUS, 2014, 3, pp.317-329 ever in the eastern part, because of a tradition for higher female and maternal employment, the shares are higher.
The changes over time for part-time work are larger.In 2004, the shares of female part-time employment declined to 84 percent in the East and 83 percent in the West.This shows two implications.First, part-time employment is still a womenspecific field, but second, more and more men are resorting to part-time employment.

Results
Before turning to the detailed results, I present the long-run differentials.Between 1992 and 2004, occupational sex segregation declined for German women.For western Germany, the values of the D Index declined from 0.613 to 0.574, while the values of the H Index declined from 0.313 to 0.270.Similar results are computed for eastern Germany.Here, the overall segregation declined from 0.622 to 0.616 (D Index), and respectively, from 0.325 to 0.310 (H Index).
Figures 1 and 2 show occupational sex segregation over the time span, separated into full-time and part-time employment in the East and in the West.See Figure 1 for the distributions computed by the D Index and Figure 2 for the H Index.It is obvious that both types of measures show rather identical distributions.
Source: IABS-R04, own calculation.Segregation has declined over time in both parts of Germany.For full-time employment, the results are the following.The highest values are observed in western Germany in 1993, when the D Index is 0.598 and the H Index 0.298.In eastern Germany, the highest values appear in 1994.The D Index is 0.636 and the H Index 0.341.For western Germany, the lowest values are in 2003, while the D Index is 0.559, the H Index is 0.255.In eastern Germany, the highest values are in 2002, while the D Index is around 0.605, the H Index is around 0.304.These results are in line with Falk (2002), who calculates, inter alia, D Indices that increase in eastern Germany between 1991 and 1996, and decrease until 2000.She interprets the early increase with the maximum in 1996 as an effect of a continuing economic transition, and not as an effect of a former socialist planned economy.
As discussed by Hinz and Schübel (2001), occupational sex segregation is lower in part-time employment.Although Beblo, Heinze, and Wolf (2008) report only slight differences between working time regimes, I present long-run shifts in segregation for part-time employment.For western Germany, the highest D Index is 0.564 in 1992, while the H Index is 0.229 in 1994.In eastern Germany, the highest values are in 1994.The D Index is 0.580 and the H Index 0.263.For western Germany, the lowest D Index is 0.477 in 2004, while the H Index is 0.180 in 2003.In eastern Germany, the lowest values are in 2002.The D Index is around 0.503 and the H Index 0.215.In the year 2000, there is a temporary re-increase for eastern Germany only.Falk (2002) and Rosenfeld, Trappe, and Gornick (2004) both discuss the hypothesis of convergence of the eastern and western parts of Germany.While the segregation gap for full-time work rose in 1992 and then remained stable over time, the variation for part-time work seems to be more affected by cyclical effects.However, in fact, as Falk (2002) shows, a trend in convergence in occupational sex segregation is still not observable.

Conclusion
In the early years after the German unification in 1990, a tremendous change happened regarding the former East German economy.Large parts of the industry were sold to companies in western Germany, while plants were closed because of noncompetitive technology, old infrastructure and low capital endowment.This downturn of industrial workplaces increased the local unemployment rates and raised the migration to western Germany.While the macroeconomic situation between the former two countries converged over time because of massive public transfers, the two parts still differ in many respects, such as gender roles or maternal employment.
In this descriptive paper, I reassess the topic of occupational sex segregation for the areas covered by the former East Germany and West Germany.I use data from the regional file of the IAB Employment Sample (IABS-R04) to replicate the existing findings for the case of Germany for the longer time span of 1992 to 2004.Following the papers of Hinz and Schübel (2001), Falk (2002), andBeblo, Heinze, andWolf (2008), I present three key results.First, segregation has declined over time.Second, segregation is still higher in the eastern part of Germany.There is no observable trend of convergence between East and West.Finally, these results hold for both full-time and part-time employment, while segregation is always lower for those working part-time.
Future research should turn towards long-term analysis of the interior differences in the occupational structure.There may be a nexus between the ratio of industrial workplaces in the eastern and western parts of Germany and the size of occupational sex segregation.Policy makers, however, should continue to generate equal opportunities on the labor market, such as closing the gap in pay between men and women.

Figure 1
Figure 1 Duncan Index D

Figure
Figure 2Hutchens Index H

Table 1
Employment Rates in Germany